Natural Language Processing for sensory and consumer scientists. A tidy introduction in R

Ruben Rama

2024-09-08

Housekeeping

Why Are We Here?

EUROSENSE 2024

A Sense of Global Culture

11th Conference on Sensory and Consumer Research

8-11 September 2024

Dublin, Ireland

Intro

Hello! 👋

Intro

Hello! 👋

Ruben Rama

Global Sensory and Consumer Insights Data and Knowledge Manager

Where to find the workshop material?

https://github.com/RubenRama/EuroSense2024_NLP

Preface

What Are We Going to Do?

  • Step-by-step guide to help sensory and consumer scientists start their journey into Natural Language Processing (NLP) analysis.

  • Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field of Artificial Intelligence that makes human language intelligible to machines.

  • NLP studies the rules and structure of language, and create intelligent systems capable of:

    • understanding,
    • analyzing, and
    • extracting meaning from text.

What Are We Going to Do?

  • Part One: Text Mining and Exploratory Analysis

  • Part Two: Tidy Sentiment Analysis in R

  • Part Three: Topic Modelling

Tools 🔧 - R & RStudio

Tools 🔧 - R & RStudio

R is the underlying statistical computing environment, but using R alone is no fun.

RStudio is a graphical integrated development environment (IDE) that makes using R much easier and more interactive.

Tools 🔧 - R & RStudio

R and RStudio are separate downloads and installations.

You need to install R before you install RStudio.

Once installed, because RStudio is an IDE, RStudio will run R in the background. You do not need to run it separately.

Tools 🔍 - tidyverse

We will be using tidy principles.

The tidyverse is an opinionated collection of R packages designed for data science.

All packages share an underlying design philosophy, grammar, and data structures.

Tools 🔍 - tidyverse

tidy data has a specific structure:

  • Each variable is a column.
  • Each observation is a row.
  • Each type of observational unit is a table

1

Tools 🔍 - tidyverse

We can install the complete tidyverse with:

install.packages("tidyverse")

Once installed, we can load it with:

library(tidyverse)

Tools 📖 - tidyverse

Tools - Basic Piping

%>%

|>

magrittr package

R Native (> 4.1)

Tools - Basic Piping

|>

It allows us to link a sequence of analysis steps.

function(data, argument(s))

# is equivalent to

data |> 
  funtion(argument(s))

The pipe operator

  • takes the thing that is on the left, and
  • places it on the first argument of the function that is on the right!

Prepare your Questions!

🏁

Part One: Text Mining and Exploratory Analysis

A Friendly Place

Text Mining and Data Analysis

Data can be organized into three categories:

  • structured data: predefined and formatted to a tabular format (e.g., an Excel spreadsheet).
  • semi-structured data: blend between structured and unstructured (e.g., JSON files).
  • unstructured data: data with no predefined format (e.g., an email).

Text Mining and Data Analysis

Text mining or text analysis is the process of exploring and analyzing unstructured or semi-structured text data to identify:

  • key concepts,
  • patterns,
  • relationships or,
  • any other attributes of the text.

Text Mining and Data Analysis

From a sensory and consumer perspective, text data can come from lots of different sources:

  • panel/consumer comments,
  • product review,
  • interview transcripts,
  • MROCS or online discussions,
  • digitized text,
  • tweets, blogs, social media,
  • etc.

Process of Text Mining

A simplistic explanation of a typical text mining can include the following steps:

  1. We gather the data, either by creating it or selecting existing datasets.
  2. We preprocess or clean the text to get it ready for analysis.
  3. We perform text mining or analysis, such as sentiment analysis, topic modelling, etc.
  4. We communicate the findings from the text mining.

Importing Review Data

Original data was sourced from Kaggle, from the Amazon Alexa Reviews dataset.

Data file is available in the github repository.

https://github.com/RubenRama/EuroSense2024_NLP

Importing Review Data

We can use the read_csv() function from readr (part of the tidyverse) to load the data:

review_data <- read_csv("data/amazon_alexa.csv")

Importing Review Data

We can also use the file.choose() function.

That will bring up a file explorer window that will allow us to interactively choose the required file:

review_data <- read_csv(file.choose())

Let’s Explore the Data

review_data
# A tibble: 3,150 × 5
   stars date      product             review                           feedback
   <dbl> <chr>     <chr>               <chr>                               <dbl>
 1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     Love my Echo!                           1
 2     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     Loved it!                               1
 3     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish       Sometimes while playing a game,…        1
 4     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     I have had a lot of fun with th…        1
 5     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     Music                                   1
 6     5 31-Jul-18 Heather Gray Fabric I received the echo as a gift. …        1
 7     3 31-Jul-18 Sandstone Fabric    Without having a cellphone, I c…        1
 8     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     I think this is the 5th one I'v…        1
 9     5 30-Jul-18 Heather Gray Fabric looks great                             1
10     5 30-Jul-18 Heather Gray Fabric Love it! I’ve listened to songs…        1
# ℹ 3,140 more rows

Let’s Explore the Data

We have 3150 reviews.

We may want to remove any duplicated reviews by using the distinct() function from dplyr:

Traditional approach:

distinct(review_data)

With |>

review_data |> 
  distinct()

Let’s Explore the Data

We have 3150 reviews.

We may want to remove any duplicated reviews by using the distinct() function from dplyr:

review_data <- review_data |> 
  distinct()

Let’s Explore the Data

We have 3150 reviews.

We may want to remove any duplicated reviews by using the distinct() function from dplyr:

review_data <- review_data |> 
  distinct()

review_data
# A tibble: 2,435 × 5
   stars date      product             review                           feedback
   <dbl> <chr>     <chr>               <chr>                               <dbl>
 1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     Love my Echo!                           1
 2     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     Loved it!                               1
 3     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish       Sometimes while playing a game,…        1
 4     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     I have had a lot of fun with th…        1
 5     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     Music                                   1
 6     5 31-Jul-18 Heather Gray Fabric I received the echo as a gift. …        1
 7     3 31-Jul-18 Sandstone Fabric    Without having a cellphone, I c…        1
 8     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     I think this is the 5th one I'v…        1
 9     5 30-Jul-18 Heather Gray Fabric looks great                             1
10     5 30-Jul-18 Heather Gray Fabric Love it! I’ve listened to songs…        1
# ℹ 2,425 more rows

Let’s Explore the Data

Briefly, let’s just focus on one product.

We use filter() and summarise() (or summarize()) functions (from dplyr):

Traditional approach:

df <- filter(review_data,
             product == "Charcoal Fabric")

df <- aggregate(df$stars, 
                by = list(df$product),
                FUN = mean)

df
          Group.1       x
1 Charcoal Fabric 4.73516

with |>

review_data |>
  filter(product == "Charcoal Fabric") |>
  summarise(stars_mean = mean(stars))
# A tibble: 1 × 1
  stars_mean
       <dbl>
1       4.74

Let’s Explore the Data

We may want to group by product and then obtain a summary of the star rating.

We can use group_by() and summarise() (also from dplyr)

review_data |>
  group_by(product) |>
  summarise(stars_mean = mean(stars))
# A tibble: 16 × 2
   product                      stars_mean
   <chr>                             <dbl>
 1 Black                              4.23
 2 Black  Dot                         4.45
 3 Black  Plus                        4.37
 4 Black  Show                        4.48
 5 Black  Spot                        4.31
 6 Charcoal Fabric                    4.74
 7 Configuration: Fire TV Stick       4.59
 8 Heather Gray Fabric                4.70
 9 Oak Finish                         4.86
10 Sandstone Fabric                   4.36
11 Walnut Finish                      4.8 
12 White                              4.14
13 White  Dot                         4.42
14 White  Plus                        4.36
15 White  Show                        4.28
16 White  Spot                        4.34

Let’s Explore the Data

We can arrange() the results to show in descending order (yes! also dplyr):

review_data |>
  group_by(product) |>
  summarize(stars_mean = mean(stars)) |>
  arrange(desc(stars_mean))
# A tibble: 16 × 2
   product                      stars_mean
   <chr>                             <dbl>
 1 Oak Finish                         4.86
 2 Walnut Finish                      4.8 
 3 Charcoal Fabric                    4.74
 4 Heather Gray Fabric                4.70
 5 Configuration: Fire TV Stick       4.59
 6 Black  Show                        4.48
 7 Black  Dot                         4.45
 8 White  Dot                         4.42
 9 Black  Plus                        4.37
10 White  Plus                        4.36
11 Sandstone Fabric                   4.36
12 White  Spot                        4.34
13 Black  Spot                        4.31
14 White  Show                        4.28
15 Black                              4.23
16 White                              4.14

Let’s Explore the Data

But we cannot summarise unstructured or categorical data!

review_data |>
  group_by(product) |>
  summarize(review_mean = mean(review))
# A tibble: 16 × 2
   product                      review_mean
   <chr>                              <dbl>
 1 Black                                 NA
 2 Black  Dot                            NA
 3 Black  Plus                           NA
 4 Black  Show                           NA
 5 Black  Spot                           NA
 6 Charcoal Fabric                       NA
 7 Configuration: Fire TV Stick          NA
 8 Heather Gray Fabric                   NA
 9 Oak Finish                            NA
10 Sandstone Fabric                      NA
11 Walnut Finish                         NA
12 White                                 NA
13 White  Dot                            NA
14 White  Plus                           NA
15 White  Show                           NA
16 White  Spot                           NA

Counting Categorical Data

If what we want is to understand the number of reviews per product, we can summarize with n() after grouping by product.

review_data |>
  group_by(product) |>
  summarize(number_rows = n())
# A tibble: 16 × 2
   product                      number_rows
   <chr>                              <int>
 1 Black                                261
 2 Black  Dot                           252
 3 Black  Plus                          270
 4 Black  Show                          260
 5 Black  Spot                          241
 6 Charcoal Fabric                      219
 7 Configuration: Fire TV Stick         342
 8 Heather Gray Fabric                   79
 9 Oak Finish                             7
10 Sandstone Fabric                      45
11 Walnut Finish                          5
12 White                                 91
13 White  Dot                            92
14 White  Plus                           78
15 White  Show                           85
16 White  Spot                          108

Counting Categorical Data

Alternatively, there is a tidy way to achieve the same by using count() (thanks dplyr!)

review_data |>
  count(product)
# A tibble: 16 × 2
   product                          n
   <chr>                        <int>
 1 Black                          261
 2 Black  Dot                     252
 3 Black  Plus                    270
 4 Black  Show                    260
 5 Black  Spot                    241
 6 Charcoal Fabric                219
 7 Configuration: Fire TV Stick   342
 8 Heather Gray Fabric             79
 9 Oak Finish                       7
10 Sandstone Fabric                45
11 Walnut Finish                    5
12 White                           91
13 White  Dot                      92
14 White  Plus                     78
15 White  Show                     85
16 White  Spot                    108

Counting Categorical Data

Including sort = TRUE arranges the results in descending order.

review_data |>
  count(product, sort = TRUE)
# A tibble: 16 × 2
   product                          n
   <chr>                        <int>
 1 Configuration: Fire TV Stick   342
 2 Black  Plus                    270
 3 Black                          261
 4 Black  Show                    260
 5 Black  Dot                     252
 6 Black  Spot                    241
 7 Charcoal Fabric                219
 8 White  Spot                    108
 9 White  Dot                      92
10 White                           91
11 White  Show                     85
12 Heather Gray Fabric             79
13 White  Plus                     78
14 Sandstone Fabric                45
15 Oak Finish                       7
16 Walnut Finish                    5

Cleaning the Text

There are different methods you can use to condition the text data:

  • An advanced option would be to convert the data frame to a Corpus and Document Term Matrix using the tm text mining package and then use the tm_map() function to do the cleaning.

  • But for this tutorial, we will be using the tidyverse tidy principles, and the textclean package.

Cleaning the Text

textclean is a package containing several functions that automate the

  • checking,
  • cleaning, and
  • normalization of text.

Can be installed by:

install.packages("textclean")

Once installed, it can be loaded as usual:

library(textclean)

Cleaning the Text

The check_text() function performs a thorough analysis of the text, suggesting any pre-processing ought to be done (be ready for a long output!):

check_text(review_data$review)

Cleaning the Text



===========
CONTRACTION
===========

The following observations contain contractions:

8, 12, 20, 22, 27, 34, 40, 41, 47, 52...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

8: I think this is the 5th one I've purchased. I'm working on getting one in every room of my house. I really like what features they offer specifily playing music on all Echos and controlling the lights throughout my house.
...[truncated]...
12: I love it! Learning knew things with it eveyday! Still figuring out how everything works but so far it's been easy to use and understand. She does make me laugh at times
...[truncated]...
20: I liked the original Echo. This is the same but shorter and with greater fabric/color choices. I miss the volume ring on top, now it's just the plus/minus buttons. Not a big deal but the ring w as comforting. :) Other than that, well I do like the use of a standard USB charger /port instead of the previous round pin. Other than that, I guess it sounds the same, seems to work the same, still answers to Alexa/Echo/Computer. So what's not to like? :)
...[truncated]...
22: We love Alexa! We use her to play music, play radio through iTunes, play podcasts through Anypod, and set reminders. We listen to our flash briefing of news and weather every morning. We rely on our custom lists. We like being able to voice control the volume. We're sure we'll continue to find new uses.Sometimes it's a bit frustrating when Alexa doesn't understand what we're saying.
...[truncated]...
27: I love my Echo. It's easy to operate, loads of fun.It is everything as advertised. I use it mainly to play my favorite tunes and test Alexa's knowledge.
...[truncated]...
34: The speakers sound pretty good for being so small and setup is pretty easy.  I bought two and the reason I only rate it a 3 is I have followed the instructions for synching music to both units.  I know I've done it correctly but they won't sync.  That was my primary motivation for purchasing multiple units.
...[truncated]...
40: This is my first digital assistant so I'm giving this a good review. Speaker is really good for the cheap price on Prime day. Fun to play with and can be used as an alarm clock (That's what I was going to get in the first place, but I ended up with Echo). If you haven't had a go with one then definitely try it!What I like best is the number of other devices that it can connect with. My purchase came with a Smart Plug for $10 which I connect my lamp to. Alexa, turn of the lights!
...[truncated]...
41: My husband likes being able to use it to listen to music.  I wish we knew all it's capabilities
...[truncated]...
47: It's like Siri, in fact, Siri answers more accurately then Alexa.  I don't see a real need for it in my household, though it was a good bargain on prime day deals.
...[truncated]...
52: I'm still learning how to use it, but so far my Echo is great! The sound is actually much better than I was expecting.
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider running `replace_contraction`


====
DATE
====

The following observations contain dates:

946

This issue affected the following text:

946: item returned for repair ,receivded item back from repair 07/23/18 . parts missing no power cord included.please advise

*Suggestion: Consider running `replace date`


=====
DIGIT
=====

The following observations contain digits/numbers:

4, 8, 11, 19, 25, 34, 38, 40, 50, 53...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

4: I have had a lot of fun with this thing. My 4 yr old learns about dinosaurs, i control the lights and play games like categories. Has nice sound when playing music as well.
...[truncated]...
8: I think this is the 5th one I've purchased. I'm working on getting one in every room of my house. I really like what features they offer specifily playing music on all Echos and controlling the lights throughout my house.
...[truncated]...
11: I sent it to my 85 year old Dad, and he talks to it constantly.
...[truncated]...
19: We love the size of the 2nd generation echo. Still needs a little improvement on sound
...[truncated]...
25: I got a second unit for the bedroom, I was expecting the sounds to be improved but I didnt really see a difference at all.  Overall, not a big improvement over the 1st generation.
...[truncated]...
34: The speakers sound pretty good for being so small and setup is pretty easy.  I bought two and the reason I only rate it a 3 is I have followed the instructions for synching music to both units.  I know I've done it correctly but they won't sync.  That was my primary motivation for purchasing multiple units.
...[truncated]...
38: Speaker is better than 1st generation Echo
...[truncated]...
40: This is my first digital assistant so I'm giving this a good review. Speaker is really good for the cheap price on Prime day. Fun to play with and can be used as an alarm clock (That's what I was going to get in the first place, but I ended up with Echo). If you haven't had a go with one then definitely try it!What I like best is the number of other devices that it can connect with. My purchase came with a Smart Plug for $10 which I connect my lamp to. Alexa, turn of the lights!
...[truncated]...
50: No different than Apple. To play a specific list of music you must have an Amazon of Spotify “plus/prime/etc” account.  So you must pay to play “your” music.  3 stars for that reason.  Everything else is 👍🏻 .
...[truncated]...
53: Works as you’d expect and then some. Also good sound quality considering price (70.00 on sale) and features.
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider using `replace_number`


========
EMOTICON
========

The following observations contain emoticons:

15, 20, 25, 52, 53, 60, 67, 69, 98, 104...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

15: Just what I expected....
...[truncated]...
20: I liked the original Echo. This is the same but shorter and with greater fabric/color choices. I miss the volume ring on top, now it's just the plus/minus buttons. Not a big deal but the ring w as comforting. :) Other than that, well I do like the use of a standard USB charger /port instead of the previous round pin. Other than that, I guess it sounds the same, seems to work the same, still answers to Alexa/Echo/Computer. So what's not to like? :)
...[truncated]...
25: I got a second unit for the bedroom, I was expecting the sounds to be improved but I didnt really see a difference at all.  Overall, not a big improvement over the 1st generation.
...[truncated]...
52: I'm still learning how to use it, but so far my Echo is great! The sound is actually much better than I was expecting.
...[truncated]...
53: Works as you’d expect and then some. Also good sound quality considering price (70.00 on sale) and features.
...[truncated]...
60: Love the echo I purchased it for company for my husband he is 83 and Alexa is great all he has to do is say her name and she tells him a joke and plays his favorite songs
...[truncated]...
67: Fast response which was amazing.  Clear concise answers and sound quality is fantastic.  I am still getting used to Alexia and have not usde Echo to its full extent.
...[truncated]...
69: Does everything as expected and more.
...[truncated]...
98: Love the Echo !!! I love the size, material and speaker quality. I have it hooked up to one light easily and will work on additional lights and thermostat. Next is Echo Dot for bedroom. There is a lot more to do with Echo that you think. Traffic, Weather, Trivia, etc.
...[truncated]...
104: It worked exactly as expected and the speaker has great sound. It is perfect for my classroom!
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider using `replace_emoticons`


====
HASH
====

The following observations contain Twitter style hash tags (e.g., #rstats):

70, 113, 133, 189, 231, 233, 249, 269, 381, 402...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

70: I love my Echo!  Works just like they said it would. I don't have a &#34;smart&#34; home, so I cannot speak about that function, but everything else about it is good.
...[truncated]...
113: i liked the sound . what is troubling is that I paid extra money to have access to a million more songs. Sometimes it doesn't work. Ex. Alexa play Italian songs&#34; .don't have or don&#34; t understand. or play the opera Tosca, response &#34;sorry I don&#34;t have that.
...[truncated]...
133: It's better than the 1st gen in every way except for one.  I really miss the ring at the top for volume control.  It was quicker and easier to just grab the top and twist without having to look at the buttons and find the &#34;-&#34; one and press it a few times.  I also wish the bass was a bit better.  All in all, it's a great device and I'm happy with it.
...[truncated]...
189: I don't think the &#34;2nd gen&#34; sounds as good as the 1st.  But it does have an aux out... so you could add an external speaker.  But if you are going to do that why wouldn't you just get a dot?  2nd issue is (which isn't unique to this unit but I don't understand why I can't override the default that prevents you from playing a blue tooth speaker while playing through a &#34;group&#34;.  I get there is a delay when using a BT speaker.  But if the other units are not where they can be heard then I should be able to play as a group while using the BT speaker.
...[truncated]...
231: I am extremely impressed with this item. Bought it from the &#34;warehouse&#34; or &#34;outlet&#34; with a &#34;minor imperfection. Can't tell it even has one. works great. Didn't come in packaging, but it was sealed up and had no damage and wasn't missing anything. I like the sound quality, I see some knock it. It's not a BOSE but it's more than great for our family. Easy to use, minor learning curve as it learns your voice. It integrates seamlessly with my other amazon services.Can't wait to get for my classroom too! It's a lot of fun even just as a speaker, let alone what I plan to do with it.
...[truncated]...
233: Awesome life changer! Seriously, I am able to start my morning with Alexa, by having her &#34;wake&#34;me up with  her alarm and then playing me some music. She has gotten used to my voice, that I can be in another room and she will &#34;listen&#34; to what I say. I love both my echos!!! Don't hesitate, get one and for the price, the speaker is unbelievable. I am buying the cordless holder, so I can take the echo anywhere. Love my purchase and love alexa!!!!
...[truncated]...
249: I bought this to replace a &#34;Dot&#34; in my living room. Speaker is slightly better. It hears me better over the TV. Unfortunately, it doesn't understand or respond to my requests as well as the Dot. I frequently have to request 2 or 3 times to get it to do what I want. The Dot usually does exactly what I want on the first request. I don't consider it an upgrade.
...[truncated]...
269: My husband and I are what I would call &#34;late adopters&#34; when it come to technology, but we decide we would try and Echo to serve primarily as a music source.  Wow, were we amazed and the great sound!  We've also been having a great time listening to all of our favorite songs buy just asking Alexa.  I may even buy one for my elderly Dad - I think he will enjoy having one to listen to music or even place his calls to us!
...[truncated]...
381: Six words, &#34;Alexa, tell me a poop joke.&#34;
...[truncated]...
402: We just got this within the last couple of weeks, from what we can tell no issues! My son wanted and &#34;alexa&#34; for his 6th birthday so she could tell him jokes, he could ask her questions and to listen to music she does all of that and more. We all enjoy this one so much that I just bought a second one this week during Prime Deals Day!
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider using `qdapRegex::ex_tag' (to capture meta-data) and/or replace_hash


====
HTML
====

The following observations contain HTML markup:

1371, 1374

This issue affected the following text:

1371: Echo Show - White&nbsp;Great new addition to our Alexa home solution and now I can call back home and video chat directly from my phone. Great way to stay in touch with family.
1374: I like the fact that the messages are visual now as well as audible.I am puzzled because it will light up and make the &quot;notification&quot; sound but when I ask Alexa to read my notifications, she tells me that there are no new notifications.  This has happened at least once a day for over a week now.

*Suggestion: Consider running `replace_html`


==========
INCOMPLETE
==========

The following observations contain incomplete sentences (e.g., uses ending punctuation like '...'):

13, 15, 31, 68, 118, 183, 189, 202, 216, 234...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

13: I purchased this for my mother who is having knee problems now, to give her something to do while trying to over come not getting around so fast like she did.She enjoys all the little and big things it can do...Alexa play this song, What time is it and where, and how to cook this and that!
...[truncated]...
15: Just what I expected....
...[truncated]...
31: Still learning all the capabilities...but so far pretty pretty pretty good
...[truncated]...
68: You’re all I need...na na nana!
...[truncated]...
118: It's Alexa.... what else can you say
...[truncated]...
183: Got this as a gift and love it. I never would have bought one for myself, but now that I have it.... Allows me to play music on it from my amozon prime music ; that's worth it in and of itself.  Also, gives new's briefs and tells jokes.
...[truncated]...
189: I don't think the &#34;2nd gen&#34; sounds as good as the 1st.  But it does have an aux out... so you could add an external speaker.  But if you are going to do that why wouldn't you just get a dot?  2nd issue is (which isn't unique to this unit but I don't understand why I can't override the default that prevents you from playing a blue tooth speaker while playing through a &#34;group&#34;.  I get there is a delay when using a BT speaker.  But if the other units are not where they can be heard then I should be able to play as a group while using the BT speaker.
...[truncated]...
202: I owned an echo for overa year but the new lacks the easy way to increase or decrease volume without telling it to increase or decrease volume which is hard to do for my wife since English is her second language she was born in korea. But the sound from the echo is superb. So we’ll keep it..
...[truncated]...
216: Love these,  great sound... easy to connect and use...
...[truncated]...
234: I am not super impressed with Alexa. When my Prime lapsed, she wouldn't play anything. She isn't smart enough to differentiate among spotify accounts so we can't use it for that either. She randomly speaks up when nobody is talking to her. Just today I unplugged her...not sure I'll ever use my Alexa again.
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider using `replace_incomplete`


====
KERN
====

The following observations contain kerning (e.g., 'The B O M B!'):

622, 1477, 1686

This issue affected the following text:

622: If you want to listen to music and have it come through several of the Echo/Dot units simultaneously, YOU MUST PAY A MONTHLY FEE. I thought this was Amazon, not Apple??!! I’ve paid for many of these so I could have one in each room, is that not enough of my money??!!??
1477: IT SEEMS TO BE OK BUT THE INSTRUCTIONS ARE WEAK AND I CAN NOT SEEM TO GET IT TO WORK. I AM GOING TO GET MY TECHY FRIEND TO HELP ME OUT AND I WILL UPDATE YOU LATER
1686: It get on sale after 2 days so ... CHECK EVENTS BEFORE U BUY THESE AMAZON PRODUCTS!

*Suggestion: Consider using `replace_kern`


=============
MISSING VALUE
=============

The following observations contain missing values:

86, 184, 220, 375, 407, 525, 655, 750, 774, 805...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider running `drop_NA`


==========
MISSPELLED
==========

The following observations contain potentially misspelled words:

3, 7, 8, 12, 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 25...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

3: Somet<<im>>es while playing a game, you can answer a <<que>>stion correctly but <<Alexa>> says you got it wrong a<<nd>> answers the same as you.  I like being able to turn lights on a<<nd>> off while away from home.
...[truncated]...
7: <<Wi>>thout having a cellphone, I cannot u<<se>> many of her features. I have an iPad but do not <<se>>e that of any u<<se>>.  It IS a great alarm.  If u r almost deaf, you can hear her alarm in the bedroom from out in the living room, so that is reason enough to keep her.It is fun to ask ra<<nd>>om <<que>>stions to hear her respon<<se>>.  She does not <<se>>em to be very <<smartbon>> politics yet.
...[truncated]...
8: I think this is the 5th one I've <<pur>>ch<<a<<se>>>>d. I'm working on <<ge>>tting one in every room of my hou<<se>>. I really like what features they offer <<specifily>> playing music on all Echos a<<nd>> <<controll>>ing the lights throughout my hou<<se>>.
...[truncated]...
12: I <<lov>>e it! Lear<<ni>>ng knew things with it <<eveyday>>! Still figuring out how everything works but so far it's been easy to u<<se>> a<<nd>> u<<nd>>ersta<<nd>>. She does make me laugh at t<<im>>es
...[truncated]...
13: I <<pur>>ch<<a<<se>>>>d this for my mother who is having knee problems now, to give her something to do while trying to over come not <<ge>>tting arou<<nd>> so fast like she did.She enjoys all the li<<ttl>>e a<<nd>> big things it can do...<<Alexa>> play this song, What t<<im>>e is it a<<nd>> <<whe>>re, a<<nd>> how to cook this a<<nd>> that!
...[truncated]...
18: We have only been using <<Alexa>> for a couple of days a<<nd>> are having a lot of fun with our new toy. It like having a new hou<<se>>hold member! We are trying to learn all the different <<featues>> a<<nd>> benefits that come with it.
...[truncated]...
20: I liked the origi<<na>>l Echo. This is the same but shorter a<<nd>> with greater fabric/c<<olor>> choices. I miss the volume ring on top, now it's just the plus/minus buttons. Not a big deal but the ring w as comforting. :) Other than that, well I do like the u<<se>> of a sta<<nd>>ard USB char<<ge>>r /port instead of the <<pre>>vious rou<<nd>> pin. Other than that, I guess it sou<<nd>>s the same, <<se>>ems to work the same, still answers to <<Alexa>>/Echo/Computer. So what's not to like? :)
...[truncated]...
21: Love the Echo a<<nd>> how good the music sou<<nd>>s playing off it. <<Alexa>> u<<nd>>erst<<a<<nd>>s>> most comm<<a<<nd>>s>> but it is difficult at t<<im>>es for her to fi<<nd>> specific playlists or songs on <<Spotify>>. She is good with Amazon Music but is lacking in other major programs.
...[truncated]...
22: We <<lov>>e <<Alexa>>! We u<<se>> her to play music, play radio through iTunes, play podcasts through <<Anypod>>, a<<nd>> <<se>>t remi<<nd>>ers. We listen to our f<<las>>h briefing of news a<<nd>> weather every mor<<ni>>ng. We rely on our custom lists. We like being able to voice control the volume. We're <<su>>re we'll continue to fi<<nd>> new u<<se>>s.Somet<<im>>es it's a bit frustrating <<whe>>n <<Alexa>> doesn't u<<nd>>ersta<<nd>> what we're saying.
...[truncated]...
25: I got a s<<eco>><<nd>> u<<ni>>t for the bedroom, I was expecting the sou<<nd>>s to be <<im>>proved but I <<didnt>> really <<se>>e a difference at all.  Overall, not a big <<im>>provement over the 1st <<ge>>neration.
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider running `hunspell::hunspell_find` & `hunspell::hunspell_suggest`


========
NO ALPHA
========

The following observations contain elements with no alphabetic (a-z) letters:

61, 1342, 1899, 2079

This issue affected the following text:

61: 😍
1342: 👍🏻
1899: ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐
2079: 😄😄

*Suggestion: Consider cleaning the raw text or running `filter_row`


==========
NO ENDMARK
==========

The following observations contain elements with missing ending punctuation:

5, 9, 12, 19, 20, 24, 26, 30, 31, 32...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

5: Music
...[truncated]...
9: looks great
...[truncated]...
12: I love it! Learning knew things with it eveyday! Still figuring out how everything works but so far it's been easy to use and understand. She does make me laugh at times
...[truncated]...
19: We love the size of the 2nd generation echo. Still needs a little improvement on sound
...[truncated]...
20: I liked the original Echo. This is the same but shorter and with greater fabric/color choices. I miss the volume ring on top, now it's just the plus/minus buttons. Not a big deal but the ring w as comforting. :) Other than that, well I do like the use of a standard USB charger /port instead of the previous round pin. Other than that, I guess it sounds the same, seems to work the same, still answers to Alexa/Echo/Computer. So what's not to like? :)
...[truncated]...
24: I love it. It plays my sleep sounds immediately when I ask
...[truncated]...
26: Amazing product
...[truncated]...
30: Just like the other one
...[truncated]...
31: Still learning all the capabilities...but so far pretty pretty pretty good
...[truncated]...
32: I like it
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider cleaning the raw text or running `add_missing_endmark`


====================
NO SPACE AFTER COMMA
====================

The following observations contain commas with no space afterwards:

101, 132, 163, 337, 365, 521, 730, 936, 946, 1060...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

101: Great fun getting to know all the functions of this product.  WOW -- family fun and homework help.  Talking with other grandchildren,who also have an Echo, is a HUGE bonus.  Can't wait to learn more and more and more
...[truncated]...
132: I love it,she is very helpful. I use her for remembering things and sleep. You can ask her just about anything. I have only had her for about a week so still learning her.
...[truncated]...
163: Stopped working after 2 weeks ,didn't follow commands!? Really fun when it was working?
...[truncated]...
337: Like, all types of fun,music, and more
...[truncated]...
365: This small echo dot is amazing the sounds that come out are great.it changes my nest thermostat,and my Phillips hue lights.without leaving my chair.
...[truncated]...
521: This refurbished item was fine,but I wasn't aware that there is a fee for having other echos set up in the rooms.  However, it was missing the cordThank you
...[truncated]...
730: It's not perfect, but I really like this little gizmo. i bought it primarily for 2 purposes. First, so I could set wake-up alarms by individual days, and set the wake-up music individually by the day. Second, I wanted to control a bedroom light by voice, so I could shut it off as I was falling asleep, without having to get out of bed to turn a switch. The Echo Spot, together with a smart plug,has been able to accomplish that. A bonus has been getting Alexa to play music from my Amazon Prime playlists.What's not so great is that sometimes Alexa has a really hard time understanding instructions, and repeating and altering the way you say things can get pretty frustrating. Hopefully the AI gets better in the future, along with added functions.
...[truncated]...
936: Got for elderly parents,easy for them to use.just instructions could be more informative
...[truncated]...
946: item returned for repair ,receivded item back from repair 07/23/18 . parts missing no power cord included.please advise
...[truncated]...
1060: just what I expected,already have 2 other  shows
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider running `add_comma_space`


=========
NON ASCII
=========

The following observations contain non-ASCII text:

6, 10, 23, 33, 37, 50, 51, 53, 61, 68...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

6: I received the echo as a gift. I needed another Bluetooth or something to play music easily accessible, and found this smart speaker. Can’t wait to see what else it can do.
...[truncated]...
10: Love it! I’ve listened to songs I haven’t heard since childhood! I get the news, weather, information! It’s great!
...[truncated]...
23: Have only had it set up for a few days. Still adding smart home devices to it. The speaker is great for playing music. I like the size, we have it stationed on the kitchen counter and it’s not intrusive to look at.
...[truncated]...
33: She works well. Needs a learning command  for unique, owners and users like. Alexa “learn” Tasha’s birthday.  Or Alexa “learn” my definition of Fine. Etc. other than that she is great
...[truncated]...
37: Love my Echo. Still learning all the things it will do. Wasn’t able to follow instructions included in the package, but found a great one on U-Tube.
...[truncated]...
50: No different than Apple. To play a specific list of music you must have an Amazon of Spotify “plus/prime/etc” account.  So you must pay to play “your” music.  3 stars for that reason.  Everything else is 👍🏻 .
...[truncated]...
51: Excelente, lo unico es que no esta en español.
...[truncated]...
53: Works as you’d expect and then some. Also good sound quality considering price (70.00 on sale) and features.
...[truncated]...
61: 😍
...[truncated]...
68: You’re all I need...na na nana!
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider running `replace_non_ascii`


==================
NON SPLIT SENTENCE
==================

The following observations contain unsplit sentences (more than one sentence per element):

3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 17, 18...[truncated]...

This issue affected the following text:

3: Sometimes while playing a game, you can answer a question correctly but Alexa says you got it wrong and answers the same as you.  I like being able to turn lights on and off while away from home.
...[truncated]...
4: I have had a lot of fun with this thing. My 4 yr old learns about dinosaurs, i control the lights and play games like categories. Has nice sound when playing music as well.
...[truncated]...
6: I received the echo as a gift. I needed another Bluetooth or something to play music easily accessible, and found this smart speaker. Can’t wait to see what else it can do.
...[truncated]...
7: Without having a cellphone, I cannot use many of her features. I have an iPad but do not see that of any use.  It IS a great alarm.  If u r almost deaf, you can hear her alarm in the bedroom from out in the living room, so that is reason enough to keep her.It is fun to ask random questions to hear her response.  She does not seem to be very smartbon politics yet.
...[truncated]...
8: I think this is the 5th one I've purchased. I'm working on getting one in every room of my house. I really like what features they offer specifily playing music on all Echos and controlling the lights throughout my house.
...[truncated]...
10: Love it! I’ve listened to songs I haven’t heard since childhood! I get the news, weather, information! It’s great!
...[truncated]...
12: I love it! Learning knew things with it eveyday! Still figuring out how everything works but so far it's been easy to use and understand. She does make me laugh at times
...[truncated]...
13: I purchased this for my mother who is having knee problems now, to give her something to do while trying to over come not getting around so fast like she did.She enjoys all the little and big things it can do...Alexa play this song, What time is it and where, and how to cook this and that!
...[truncated]...
17: Really happy with this purchase.  Great speaker and easy to set up.
...[truncated]...
18: We have only been using Alexa for a couple of days and are having a lot of fun with our new toy. It like having a new household member! We are trying to learn all the different featues and benefits that come with it.
...[truncated]...

*Suggestion: Consider running `textshape::split_sentence`


====
TIME
====

The following observations contain timestamps:

802

This issue affected the following text:

802: When we first received this product, it was great.  However, about a week ago, the device served up a video advertisement around 10:30pm at night and scared myself and my family.  If you want to make sure you are protected and don't allow video directly in your home, the spot is not a device that can keep you safe.

*Suggestion: Consider using `replace_time`


===
URL
===

The following observations contain URLs:

1017

This issue affected the following text:

1017: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B073SQYXTW/ref=cm_cr_ryp_prd_ttl_sol_18

*Suggestion: Consider using `replace_url`

Cleaning the Text

We can see that textclean has identified several pre-processing suggestions and solutions:

  • Contractions: replace_contraction() function to replace any contractions with their multi-word forms (i.e., wasn’t to was not, i’d to i would, etc.)
  • Date: replace_date() with replacement = "" to replace any date with a blank character.
  • Time: replace_time() with replacement = "" to replace any time with a blank character.
  • Emojis: replace_emoji() to replace any emoji (i.e., 👌) with word equivalents .
  • Emoticons: replace_emoticon() to replace any emoticon (i.e., ;) ) with word equivalents.
  • Hashtags: replace_hash() to replace any #hashtag with a blank character.

Cleaning the Text

  • Numbers: replace_number() to replace any number (including coma separated numbers) with a blank character.
  • HTML: replace_html() with symbol = FALSE to remove any HTML markup.
  • Incomplete Sentences: replace_incomplete() with replacement = "" to replace incomplete sentence end marks (i.e. …).
  • URL: replace_url() with replacement = "" to replace any URL with a blank character.
  • Kern: replace_kern() to remove any added manual space (i.e., The B O M B ! to The BOMB!).
  • Internet Slang: replace_internet_slang() to replace the slang with longer word equivalents (i.e., ASAP to as soon as possible).

Cleaning the Text

Traditionally, we would need to call every function one at a time:

review_data$review <- replace_contraction(review_data$review)

review_data$review <- replace_date(review_data$review, replacement = "")

review_data$review <- replace_time(review_data$review, replacement = "")

...

Cleaning the Text

The benefit of using the |> is very apparent in situations like this:

review_data$review <- review_data$review |>
  replace_contraction() |>
  replace_date(replacement = "") |>
  replace_time(replacement = "") |>
  replace_email() |>
  replace_emoticon() |>
  replace_number() |>
  replace_html(symbol = FALSE) |>
  replace_incomplete(replacement = "") |>
  replace_url(replacement = "") |>
  replace_kern() |>
  replace_internet_slang()

Cleaning the Text

In addition, we can use str_remove_all() from the stringr package (part of the tidyverse) to remove all matched patterns from a string.

review_data$review <- review_data$review |>
  str_remove_all("&#34;")

Using tidytext

Once our text has been cleaned, we will be using tidytext to preprocess text data.

As before, we can install this package by:

install.package("tidytext")

And we will load it with:

library(tidytext)

Tokenizing Text

  • Text mining or text analysis methods are based on counting:

    • words,
    • phrases,
    • sentences, or
    • any other meaningful segment.

  • These segments are called tokens.

Tokenizing Text

  • Therefore, we need to

    • break out the reviews into individual words (or tokens) and
    • begin mining for insights.

  • This process is called tokenization.

Tokenization with tidytext

  • From a tidy text framework, we need to both

    • break the text into individual tokens (tokenization) and
    • transform it to a tidy data structure.

  • tidy text is defined as a one-token-per-row dataframe, where a token can be

    • a character,
    • a word,
    • an n-gram,
    • a sentence,
    • a paragraph,
    • a tweet,
    • etc.

Tokenization with tidytext

  • We can do this by using unnest_tokens() from tidytext.

  • unnest_tokens() requires at least two arguments:

    • the output column name that will be created as the text is unnested into it (word in our case, for simplicity), and
    • the input column that hold the current text (i.e., review in our case)

Tokenization with tidytext

tidy_review <- review_data |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review)

Tokenization with tidytext

tidy_review <- review_data |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review)

tidy_review
# A tibble: 65,749 × 5
   stars date      product         feedback word     
   <dbl> <chr>     <chr>              <dbl> <chr>    
 1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 love     
 2     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 my       
 3     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 echo     
 4     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 loved    
 5     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 it       
 6     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 sometimes
 7     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 while    
 8     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 playing  
 9     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 a        
10     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 game     
# ℹ 65,739 more rows

Counting words (or tokens)

tidy_review |>
  count(word, sort = TRUE)
# A tibble: 4,263 × 2
   word      n
   <chr> <int>
 1 the    2675
 2 i      2563
 3 to     2241
 4 it     2205
 5 and    1810
 6 a      1224
 7 is     1202
 8 my     1118
 9 for     849
10 love    743
# ℹ 4,253 more rows

Removal of stop words

  • Stop words are overly common words that may not add any meaning to our results (e.g., “the”, “have”, “is”, “are”).

  • We want to exclude them from our textual data and our analysis completely.

  • There is no single universal list of stop words.

  • Nor any agreed upon rules for identifying stop words!

  • Luckily, there are several different lists to choose from…

Removal of stop words

We can get a specific stop word lexicon via the stopwords() function from the stopwords package, in a tidy format with one word per row.

We first need to install the package:

install.package("stopwords")

Followed by loading it:

library(stopwords)

Then we can obtain the different sources for stop words:

stopwords_getsources()
[1] "snowball"      "stopwords-iso" "misc"          "smart"        
[5] "marimo"        "ancient"       "nltk"          "perseus"

Removal of stop words

Stop words lists are available in multiple languages too!

stopwords_getlanguages("snowball")
 [1] "da" "de" "en" "es" "fi" "fr" "hu" "ir" "it" "nl" "no" "pt" "ro" "ru" "sv"
stopwords_getlanguages("marimo")
[1] "en"    "de"    "ru"    "ar"    "he"    "zh_tw" "zh_cn" "ko"    "ja"   
stopwords_getlanguages("stopwords-iso")
 [1] "af" "ar" "hy" "eu" "bn" "br" "bg" "ca" "zh" "hr" "cs" "da" "nl" "en" "eo"
[16] "et" "fi" "fr" "gl" "de" "el" "ha" "he" "hi" "hu" "id" "ga" "it" "ja" "ko"
[31] "ku" "la" "lt" "lv" "ms" "mr" "no" "fa" "pl" "pt" "ro" "ru" "sk" "sl" "so"
[46] "st" "es" "sw" "sv" "th" "tl" "tr" "uk" "ur" "vi" "yo" "zu"

Removal of stop words

Different word lists contain different words!

get_stopwords(language = "en", source = "snowball") |>
  count()
# A tibble: 1 × 1
      n
  <int>
1   175
get_stopwords(language = "en", source = "stopwords-iso") |>
  count()
# A tibble: 1 × 1
      n
  <int>
1  1298
get_stopwords(language = "en", source = "smart") |>
  count()
# A tibble: 1 × 1
      n
  <int>
1   571

Removal of stop words

We can sample a random list of these stop words.

By default, from smart in English (en).

head(sample(stop_words$word, 15), 15)
 [1] "again"    "hereby"   "each"     "finds"    "between"  "works"   
 [7] "specify"  "maybe"    "uses"     "took"     "so"       "interest"
[13] "enough"   "to"       "second"

Removal of stop words

To remove stops words from our tidy tibble using tidytext, we will use a join.

After we tokenize the reviews into words, we can use anti_join() to remove stop words.

tidy_review <- review_data |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review) |>
  anti_join(stop_words)

Removal of stop words

If we want to select another source or another language, we can join using the get_stopwords() function directly.

tidy_review_clean <- review_data |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review) |>
  anti_join(tidytext::get_stopwords(language = 'es', source = 'stopwords-iso'))

Removal of stop words

Notice that stop_words already has a word column.

stop_words
# A tibble: 1,149 × 2
   word        lexicon
   <chr>       <chr>  
 1 a           SMART  
 2 a's         SMART  
 3 able        SMART  
 4 about       SMART  
 5 above       SMART  
 6 according   SMART  
 7 accordingly SMART  
 8 across      SMART  
 9 actually    SMART  
10 after       SMART  
# ℹ 1,139 more rows

and a new column called word was created by the unest_tokens() function,

review_data |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review)
# A tibble: 65,749 × 5
   stars date      product         feedback word     
   <dbl> <chr>     <chr>              <dbl> <chr>    
 1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 love     
 2     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 my       
 3     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 echo     
 4     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 loved    
 5     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 it       
 6     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 sometimes
 7     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 while    
 8     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 playing  
 9     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 a        
10     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 game     
# ℹ 65,739 more rows

Removal of stop words

so anti_join() automatically joins on the column word.

# A tibble: 65,749 × 5
   stars date      product         feedback word     
   <dbl> <chr>     <chr>              <dbl> <chr>    
 1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 love     
 2     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 my       
 3     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 echo     
 4     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 loved    
 5     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 it       
 6     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 sometimes
 7     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 while    
 8     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 playing  
 9     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 a        
10     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 game     
# ℹ 65,739 more rows
# A tibble: 22,144 × 5
   stars date      product         feedback word     
   <dbl> <chr>     <chr>              <dbl> <chr>    
 1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 love     
 2     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 echo     
 3     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1 loved    
 4     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 playing  
 5     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 game     
 6     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 answer   
 7     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 question 
 8     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 correctly
 9     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 alexa    
10     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1 wrong    
# ℹ 22,134 more rows

Removal of stop words

Let’s check the result.

tidy_review |>
  count(word, sort = TRUE)
# A tibble: 3,728 × 2
   word        n
   <chr>   <int>
 1 love      743
 2 echo      658
 3 alexa     473
 4 music     363
 5 easy      268
 6 sound     237
 7 set       231
 8 amazon    218
 9 dot       211
10 product   205
# ℹ 3,718 more rows

Plotting Word Counts

We will use ggplot2 for the data visualization.

The library is automatically loaded as part of tidyverse, but can be called separately.

library(ggplot2)

Plotting Word Counts

Starting with our tidy text, we want to create an extra column called id to be able to identify the review.

tidy_review <- review_data |>
  mutate(id = row_number()) |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review) |>
  anti_join(stop_words)

Plotting Word Counts

Starting with our tidy text, we want to create an extra column called id to be able to identify the review.

tidy_review <- review_data |>
  mutate(id = row_number()) |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review) |>
  anti_join(stop_words)

tidy_review
# A tibble: 22,144 × 6
   stars date      product         feedback    id word     
   <dbl> <chr>     <chr>              <dbl> <int> <chr>    
 1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1     1 love     
 2     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1     1 echo     
 3     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1     2 loved    
 4     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1     3 playing  
 5     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1     3 game     
 6     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1     3 answer   
 7     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1     3 question 
 8     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1     3 correctly
 9     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1     3 alexa    
10     4 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish          1     3 wrong    
# ℹ 22,134 more rows

Plotting Word Counts

Visualizing counts with geom_col()

word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  count(word, sort = TRUE)

Plotting Word Counts

Visualizing counts with geom_col()

word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  count(word, sort = TRUE)

word_counts |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word,
      y = n
    )
  ) +
  geom_col()

Plotting Word Counts

We can combine using the pipe |> to make it easier to read and more concise!

tidy_review |>
  count(word, sort = TRUE) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word, 
      y = n)
    ) +
  geom_col()

Plotting Word Counts

Too many words? We can filter() before visualizing.

word_counts_filter <- tidy_review |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 100) |>
  arrange(desc(n))

Plotting Word Counts

Too many words? We can filter() before visualizing.

word_counts_filter <- tidy_review |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 100) |>
  arrange(desc(n))

word_counts_filter
# A tibble: 27 × 2
   word        n
   <chr>   <int>
 1 love      743
 2 echo      658
 3 alexa     473
 4 music     363
 5 easy      268
 6 sound     237
 7 set       231
 8 amazon    218
 9 dot       211
10 product   205
# ℹ 17 more rows

Plotting Word Counts

We can do a few tweaks to improve the count visualization.

word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word,
      y = n
    )
  ) +
  geom_col() +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Review Word Counts"
  )

Plotting Word Counts

Again, we can pipe everything together using |> to make it more concise.

tidy_review |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 100) |>
  arrange(desc(n)) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word, 
      y = n)
    ) +
  geom_col() +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Review Word Counts"
  )

Adding Custom Stop Words

Sometimes we discover a number of words in the data that aren’t informative and should be removed from our final list of words.

In this exercise, we will add a few words to our custom_stop_words data frame.

tidy_review |>
  filter(word == "yr")
# A tibble: 2 × 6
  stars date      product         feedback    id word 
  <dbl> <chr>     <chr>              <dbl> <int> <chr>
1     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric        1     4 yr   
2     5 30-Jul-18 White  Dot             1  2182 yr

Adding Custom Stop Words

stop_words
# A tibble: 1,149 × 2
   word        lexicon
   <chr>       <chr>  
 1 a           SMART  
 2 a's         SMART  
 3 able        SMART  
 4 about       SMART  
 5 above       SMART  
 6 according   SMART  
 7 accordingly SMART  
 8 across      SMART  
 9 actually    SMART  
10 after       SMART  
# ℹ 1,139 more rows

Adding Custom Stop Words

For that, we can create a custom tibble/data frame called custom_stop_words.

The column names of the new data frame of custom stop words should match stop_words (i.e., ~word and ~lexicon).

custom_stop_words <- tribble(
  ~word, ~lexicon,
  "madlibs", "CUSTOM",
  "cd's", "CUSTOM",
  "yr", "CUSTOM"
)

Adding Custom Stop Words

For that, we can create a custom tibble/data frame called custom_stop_words.

The column names of the new data frame of custom stop words should match stop_words (i.e., ~word and ~lexicon).

custom_stop_words <- tribble(
  ~word, ~lexicon,
  "madlibs", "CUSTOM",
  "cd's", "CUSTOM",
  "yr", "CUSTOM"
)

custom_stop_words
# A tibble: 3 × 2
  word    lexicon
  <chr>   <chr>  
1 madlibs CUSTOM 
2 cd's    CUSTOM 
3 yr      CUSTOM

Adding Custom Stop Words

We can now merge both lists into one that we can use for the analysis by using bind_rows()

stop_words_new <- stop_words |>
  bind_rows(custom_stop_words)

Adding Custom Stop Words

After that, we can use it with anti_join() to remove all the stop words at once!

tidy_review <- review_data |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review) |>
  anti_join(stop_words_new)

Adding Custom Stop Words

We can combine all the steps together now.

tidy_review <- review_data |>
  mutate(id = row_number()) |>
  select(id, date, product, stars, review) |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review) |>
  anti_join(stop_words_new)

Adding Custom Stop Words

Let’s check if that word is still there…

tidy_review |>
  filter(word == "yr")
# A tibble: 0 × 5
# ℹ 5 variables: id <int>, date <chr>, product <chr>, stars <dbl>, word <chr>

Back to Plotting Word Counts

We are still able to pipe it all together with |> 🙀

review_data |>
  mutate(id = row_number()) |>
  select(id, date, product, stars, review) |>
  unnest_tokens(word, review) |>
  anti_join(stop_words_new) |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 100) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word, 
      y = n)
    ) +
  geom_col() +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Review Word Counts"
  )

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

To order the different words (i.e., tokens), we can use the fct_reorder() function from forcats, also part of tidyverse.

word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 100) |>
  mutate(word2 = fct_reorder(word, n))

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

To order the different words (i.e., tokens), we can use the fct_reorder() function (or reorder()) from forcats, also part of tidyverse.

word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 100) |>
  mutate(word2 = fct_reorder(word, n))

word_counts
# A tibble: 27 × 3
   word        n word2  
   <chr>   <int> <fct>  
 1 alexa     473 alexa  
 2 amazon    218 amazon 
 3 bought    163 bought 
 4 day       127 day    
 5 device    186 device 
 6 devices   112 devices
 7 dot       211 dot    
 8 easy      268 easy   
 9 echo      658 echo   
10 excuse    112 excuse 
# ℹ 17 more rows

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

That way, we have a better looking bat plot

word_counts |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word2,
      y = n
    )
  ) +
  geom_col() +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Review Word Counts"
  )

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

Now, by product!

tidy_review |>
  count(word, product, sort = TRUE)
# A tibble: 9,441 × 3
   word  product                          n
   <chr> <chr>                        <int>
 1 echo  Black  Plus                    128
 2 love  Black  Show                     93
 3 love  Black  Spot                     93
 4 echo  Black  Show                     92
 5 alexa Black  Plus                     89
 6 easy  Configuration: Fire TV Stick    87
 7 love  Configuration: Fire TV Stick    84
 8 love  Black  Dot                      78
 9 love  Black  Plus                     78
10 echo  Black  Spot                     69
# ℹ 9,431 more rows

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

Better to group_by().

tidy_review |>
  count(word, product) |>
  group_by(product)
# A tibble: 9,441 × 3
# Groups:   product [16]
   word  product                 n
   <chr> <chr>               <int>
 1 07    Black  Spot             1
 2 1     Black                   1
 3 1     Black  Plus             2
 4 1     Charcoal Fabric         1
 5 1     White  Show             1
 6 1     White  Spot             1
 7 10    Black                   1
 8 10    Black  Spot             1
 9 10    Heather Gray Fabric     1
10 10    White                   1
# ℹ 9,431 more rows

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

Using slice_max() allows us to select the largest values of a variable.

tidy_review |>
  count(word, product) |>
  group_by(product) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10)
# A tibble: 232 × 3
# Groups:   product [16]
   word        product     n
   <chr>       <chr>   <int>
 1 love        Black      62
 2 echo        Black      58
 3 refurbished Black      47
 4 dot         Black      46
 5 alexa       Black      37
 6 bought      Black      31
 7 music       Black      27
 8 amazon      Black      20
 9 product     Black      20
10 time        Black      20
# ℹ 222 more rows

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

We will use ungroup() to remove the groups.

Followed by fct_reorder()

word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  count(word, product) |>
  group_by(product) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word2 = fct_reorder(word, n))

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

We will use ungroup() to remove the groups.

Followed by fct_reorder()

word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  count(word, product) |>
  group_by(product) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word2 = fct_reorder(word, n))

word_counts
# A tibble: 232 × 4
   word        product     n word2      
   <chr>       <chr>   <int> <fct>      
 1 love        Black      62 love       
 2 echo        Black      58 echo       
 3 refurbished Black      47 refurbished
 4 dot         Black      46 dot        
 5 alexa       Black      37 alexa      
 6 bought      Black      31 bought     
 7 music       Black      27 music      
 8 amazon      Black      20 amazon     
 9 product     Black      20 product    
10 time        Black      20 time       
# ℹ 222 more rows

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

To visualize, we need to use facet_wrap(), which allows us to “split” the graph by a determined facet.

word_counts |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word2,
      y = n,
      fill = product
    )
  ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~product, scales = "free_y") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Review Word Counts"
  )

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

(Still) Improving the Count Visualization

As explained before, we can |> our way across the code:

tidy_review |>
  count(word, product) |>
  group_by(product) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word2 = fct_reorder(word, n)) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word2,
      y = n,
      fill = product
    )
  ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~product, scales = "free_y") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Review Word Counts"
  )

Creating Word Clouds

  • A word cloud is a visual representation of text data.

  • It is often used to visualize free form text.

  • They are usually composed of single words.

  • The importance of each tag is shown with font size or color.

Creating Word Clouds

There are several alternative packages to generate word clouds in R.

For this workshop, we will use the ggwordcloud package, as it follows ggplot2 syntax.

It needs to be installed, following the normal procedure:

install.packages("ggwordcloud")

After that, we need to load it before usage:

library(ggwordcloud)

Creating Word Clouds

We will use the previously created word_count_filter containing the words with more than 100 mentions.

On the most basic level, we only need to use the geom_text_wordcloud() function for our ggplot plot.

set.seed(123)
word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud()

Creating Word Clouds

That seems to create a rather ugly word cloud.

We can improve it by piping a theme (i.e., theme_minimal()).

This theme displays the words and nothing else.

set.seed(123)
word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud() +
  theme_minimal()

Creating Word Clouds

So far, all the words are the same size.

We can introduce the total count of words that we have already calculated as the size.

set.seed(123)
word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word, 
      size = n
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud() +
  theme_minimal()

Creating Word Clouds

To obtain better proportionality, we need to use scale_size_area()

set.seed(123)
word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word, 
      size = n
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud() +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_size_area(max_size = 20)

Creating Word Clouds

If we want a tighter knitted word cloud with more exagerated sizes, we can use scale_radius() instead:

set.seed(123)
word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word,
      size = n
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud() +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_radius(range = c(0, 30), 
               limits = c(0, NA))

Creating Word Clouds

ggwordcloud also allows us to change the shape of our word cloud, by using geom_text_wordcloud_area(shape = shape)

set.seed(123)
word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word,
      size = n
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud_area(shape = "pentagon") +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_radius(range = c(0, 30),
               limits = c(0, NA))

Creating Word Clouds

Finally, we can apply some colour to our word cloud

set.seed(123)
word_counts_filter |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word,
      size = n,
      color = n
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud() +
  scale_size_area(max_size = 20) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_color_gradient2()

Creating Word Clouds by Star Review

We can first group by stars using group_by() and then filter() by the desired rating.

set.seed(13)

word_counts_stars <- tidy_review |>
  group_by(stars) |>
  filter(stars == 1) |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 5) |>
  arrange(desc(n))

Creating Word Clouds by Star Review

We can first group by stars using group_by() and then filter() by the desired rating.

set.seed(13)

word_counts_stars <- tidy_review |>
  group_by(stars) |>
  filter(stars == 1) |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 5) |>
  arrange(desc(n))

word_counts_stars |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word,
      size = n,
      color = n
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud() +
  scale_size_area(max_size = 20) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_color_gradient2()

Creating Word Clouds by Product Review

We can first filter by the desired product using filter()

set.seed(13)

word_counts_product <- tidy_review |>
  filter(product == "Charcoal Fabric") |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 5) |>
  arrange(desc(n))

Creating Word Clouds by Product Review

We can first filter by the desired product using filter()

set.seed(13)

word_counts_product <- tidy_review |>
  filter(product == "Charcoal Fabric") |>
  count(word) |>
  filter(n > 5) |>
  arrange(desc(n))

word_counts_product |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      label = word,
      size = n,
      color = n
      )
     ) +
  geom_text_wordcloud() +
  scale_size_area(max_size = 20) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_color_gradient2()

Part Two: Tidy Sentiment Analysis in R

Through the looking-glass

Sentiment Analysis Overview

  • In the previous chapter, we explored in depth what we mean by the tidy text format and showed how this format can be used to approach questions about word frequency.

  • This allowed us to analyze which words are used most frequently in documents and to compare documents.

  • Let’s now address the topic of opinion mining or sentiment analysis.

  • When human readers approach a text, we use our understanding of the emotional intent of words to infer whether a section of text is positive 👍 or negative 👎 , or perhaps characterized by some other more nuanced emotion like surprise 😲 or confusion 😕.

Sentiment Analysis - Levels

  • As we have previously explored, different levels of analysis based on the text are possible:

    • document,
    • sentence, and
    • word.

  • In addition, more complex documents can also have dates, volumes, chapters, etc.

Sentiment Analysis - Levels

  • Word level analysis exposes detailed information and can be used as foundational knowledge for more advanced practices in topic modeling.

  • Therefore, a way to analyze the sentiment of a text is

    • to consider the text as a combination of its individual words and
    • the sentiment content of the whole text as the sum of the sentiment content of the individual words.

  • This is an often-used approach, and an approach that naturally takes advantage of the tidy tool ecosystem.

Sentiment Analysis - Methods

  • There are different methods used for sentiment analysis, including:

    • training a known dataset,
    • creating your own classifiers with rules, and
    • using predefined lexical dictionaries (lexicons).

  • In this tutorial, you will use the lexicon-based approach, but I would encourage you to investigate the other methods as well as their associated trade-offs.

Sentiment Analysis - Dictionaries

  • Several distinct dictionaries exist to evaluate the opinion or emotion in text.

  • The tidytext package provides access to several sentiment lexicons, using the get_sentiments() function:

    • AFINN from Finn Årup Nielsen,
    • bing from Bing Liu and collaborators,
    • nrc from Saif Mohammad and Peter Turney, and
    • loughran from Loughran-McDonald.

Sentiment Analysis - Dictionaries

  • All four of these lexicons are based on unigrams, i.e., single words.

  • These lexicons contain many English words and the words are assigned scores for positive/negative sentiment, and also possibly emotions like joy, anger, sadness, and so forth.

  • Dictionary-based methods find the total sentiment of a piece of text by adding up the individual sentiment scores for each word in the text.

Sentiment Analysis - Dictionaries

  • Not every English word is present in the lexicons because many English words are pretty neutral.

  • These methods do not take into account qualifiers before a word, such as in “no good” or “not true”; a lexicon-based method like this is based on unigrams only.

  • For many kinds of text (like the example in this workshop), there are not sustained sections of sarcasm or negated text, so this is not an important effect.

  • Also, we can use a tidy text approach to begin to understand what kinds of negation words are important in a given text.

Sentiment Analysis - Dictionaries

  • The size of the chunk of text that we use to add up unigram sentiment scores can have an effect on an analysis.

  • A text the size of many paragraphs can often have positive and negative sentiment averaged out to about zero, while sentence-sized or paragraph-sized text often works better.

  • An example of sentence-based analysis using the sentimentr package is included in the Appendix (for those who are impatient!).

AFINN Dictionary

The AFINN lexicon (Nielsen 2011) can be loaded by using the get_sentiments() function.

get_sentiments("afinn")
# A tibble: 2,477 × 2
   word       value
   <chr>      <dbl>
 1 abandon       -2
 2 abandoned     -2
 3 abandons      -2
 4 abducted      -2
 5 abduction     -2
 6 abductions    -2
 7 abhor         -3
 8 abhorred      -3
 9 abhorrent     -3
10 abhors        -3
# ℹ 2,467 more rows

AFINN Dictionary

The AFINN lexicon (Nielsen 2011) assigns words with a score that runs between -5 and 5, with negative scores indicating negative sentiment and positive scores indicating positive sentiment

get_sentiments("afinn") |>
  summarize(
    min = min(value),
    max = max(value)
  )
# A tibble: 1 × 2
    min   max
  <dbl> <dbl>
1    -5     5

Bing Dictionary

The bing lexicon (Hu and Liu 2004) categorizes words in a binary fashion into positive and negative categories.

get_sentiments("bing") |>
  count(sentiment)
# A tibble: 2 × 2
  sentiment     n
  <chr>     <int>
1 negative   4781
2 positive   2005

nrc Dictionary

The nrc lexicon (Mohammad and Turney 2013) categorizes words in a binary fashion (“yes”/“no”) into categories of positive, negative, anger, anticipation, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise, and trust.

get_sentiments("nrc") |>
  count(sentiment, sort = TRUE)
# A tibble: 10 × 2
   sentiment        n
   <chr>        <int>
 1 negative      3316
 2 positive      2308
 3 fear          1474
 4 anger         1245
 5 trust         1230
 6 sadness       1187
 7 disgust       1056
 8 anticipation   837
 9 joy            687
10 surprise       532

Loughran dictionary

The Loughran lexicon (Loughran and McDonald 2011) was created for use with financial documents, and labels words with six possible sentiments important in financial contexts: “negative”, “positive”, “litigious”, “uncertainty”, “constraining”, or “superfluous”.

sentiment_loughran <- get_sentiments("loughran") |>
  count(sentiment) |>
  mutate(sentiment2 = fct_reorder(sentiment, n))

sentiment_loughran |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = sentiment2,
      y = n
    )
  ) +
  geom_col() +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Sentiment Counts in Loughran",
    x = "Counts",
    y = "Sentiment"
  )

Using Dictionaries

Dictionaries need to be appended by using inner_join().

The function drops any row in either data set that does not have a match in both data sets.

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("nrc"))
# A tibble: 11,000 × 6
      id date      product         stars word     sentiment   
   <int> <chr>     <chr>           <dbl> <chr>    <chr>       
 1     1 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 love     joy         
 2     1 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 love     positive    
 3     3 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish       4 question positive    
 4     3 31-Jul-18 Walnut Finish       4 wrong    negative    
 5     4 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 fun      anticipation
 6     4 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 fun      joy         
 7     4 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 fun      positive    
 8     4 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 music    joy         
 9     4 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 music    positive    
10     4 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric     5 music    sadness     
# ℹ 10,990 more rows

Counting Sentiments

After that, we can count the sentiments.

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("nrc")) |>
  count(sentiment)
# A tibble: 10 × 2
   sentiment        n
   <chr>        <int>
 1 anger          343
 2 anticipation  1275
 3 disgust        209
 4 fear           446
 5 joy           2118
 6 negative       928
 7 positive      3386
 8 sadness        723
 9 surprise       477
10 trust         1095

Counting Sentiments

We can also count how many words are linked to which sentiment.

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("nrc")) |>
  count(word, sentiment) |>
  arrange(desc(n))
# A tibble: 1,500 × 3
   word   sentiment        n
   <chr>  <chr>        <int>
 1 love   joy            743
 2 love   positive       743
 3 music  joy            363
 4 music  positive       363
 5 music  sadness        363
 6 time   anticipation   154
 7 prime  positive       133
 8 excuse negative       112
 9 fun    anticipation   107
10 fun    joy            107
# ℹ 1,490 more rows

Visualizing Sentiments

We will focus only in positive and negative sentiments.

sentiment_review_viz <- tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("nrc")) |>
  filter(sentiment %in% c("positive", "negative"))

word_counts <- sentiment_review_viz |>
  count(word, sentiment) |>
  group_by(sentiment) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word2 = fct_reorder(word, n))

Visualizing Sentiments

We will focus only in positive and negative sentiments.

word_counts |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = word2,
      y = n,
      fill = sentiment
      )
    ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~sentiment, scales = "free") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Sentiment Word Counts (nrc lexicon)",
    x = "Words"
  )

Visualizing Sentiments

Visualizing Sentiments

Of course, we can tidy and |> all that code 😏

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("nrc")) |>
  filter(sentiment %in% c("positive", "negative")) |>
  count(word, sentiment) |>
  group_by(sentiment) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word2 = fct_reorder(word, n)) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
    x = word2,
    y = n,
    fill = sentiment
    )
   ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~sentiment, scales = "free") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Sentiment Word Counts (nrc lexicon)",
    x = "Words"
  )

Counting Sentiment by Rating

Let’s use the bing lexicon for this experiment.

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(stars, sentiment)
# A tibble: 10 × 3
   stars sentiment     n
   <dbl> <chr>     <int>
 1     1 negative    160
 2     1 positive     84
 3     2 negative    114
 4     2 positive     74
 5     3 negative    115
 6     3 positive     91
 7     4 negative    253
 8     4 positive    427
 9     5 negative    461
10     5 positive   2263

Counting Sentiment by Rating

For a more comfortable exploration, we may want to transpose the results.

That can be achieved with the pivot_wider() function (from tidyr), which will transform data from long to wide format.

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(stars, sentiment) |>
  pivot_wider(names_from = sentiment, values_from = n)
# A tibble: 5 × 3
  stars negative positive
  <dbl>    <int>    <int>
1     1      160       84
2     2      114       74
3     3      115       91
4     4      253      427
5     5      461     2263

Computing Overall Sentiment by Rating

After that, we can use mutate() to create a new column with the overall sentiment rating.

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(stars, sentiment) |>
  pivot_wider(names_from = sentiment, values_from = n) |>
  mutate(overall_sentiment = positive - negative)
# A tibble: 5 × 4
  stars negative positive overall_sentiment
  <dbl>    <int>    <int>             <int>
1     1      160       84               -76
2     2      114       74               -40
3     3      115       91               -24
4     4      253      427               174
5     5      461     2263              1802

Visualizing Sentiment by Rating

We can put it all together to obtain a visualization 🎉

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(stars, sentiment) |>
  pivot_wider(names_from = sentiment, values_from = n) |>
  mutate(
    overall_sentiment = positive - negative,
    stars2 = reorder(stars, overall_sentiment)
         ) |>
  ggplot(
       aes(
         x = stars2,
         y = overall_sentiment,
         fill = as.factor(stars)
         )
       ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Overall Sentiment by Star rating (bing lexicon)",
    subtitle = "Reviews for Alexa",
    x = "Stars",
    y = "Overall Sentiment"
  )

Visualizing Sentiment by Rating

Most Common Positive and Negative Words

  • One advantage of having the data frame with both sentiment and word is that we can analyze word counts that contribute to each sentiment.

  • By implementing count() here with arguments of both word and sentiment, we find out how much each word contributed to each sentiment.

Most Common Positive and Negative Words

bing_word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(word, sentiment, sort = TRUE) |>
  ungroup()

Most Common Positive and Negative Words

bing_word_counts <- tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(word, sentiment, sort = TRUE) |>
  ungroup()

bing_word_counts
# A tibble: 585 × 3
   word    sentiment     n
   <chr>   <chr>     <int>
 1 love    positive    743
 2 easy    positive    268
 3 smart   positive    143
 4 excuse  negative    112
 5 fun     positive    107
 6 alarm   negative     97
 7 nice    positive     77
 8 awesome positive     66
 9 perfect positive     66
10 amazing positive     63
# ℹ 575 more rows

Most Common Positive and Negative Words

This can be shown visually, and we can pipe straight into ggplot2, if we like, because of the way we are consistently using tools built for handling tidy data frames.

bing_word_counts |>
  group_by(sentiment) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word = reorder(word, n)) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = n,
      y = word,
      fill = sentiment
      )
    ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~sentiment, scales = "free_y") +
  labs(
    x = "Contribution to sentiment",
    y = NULL
    )

Most Common Positive and Negative Words

Most Common Positive and Negative Words (by Stars Rating)

We can do the same, but slicing the data by the star rating gave by the consumers using group_by()

bing_word_counts_by_stars <- tidy_review |>
  group_by(stars) |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(word, sentiment, sort = TRUE) |>
  ungroup()

Most Common Positive and Negative Words (by Stars Rating)

We can do the same, but slicing the data by the star rating gave by the consumers using group_by()

bing_word_counts_by_stars <- tidy_review |>
  group_by(stars) |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(word, sentiment, sort = TRUE) |>
  ungroup()

bing_word_counts_by_stars
# A tibble: 1,001 × 4
   stars word    sentiment     n
   <dbl> <chr>   <chr>     <int>
 1     5 love    positive    658
 2     5 easy    positive    232
 3     5 smart   positive    109
 4     5 fun     positive     86
 5     4 love    positive     72
 6     5 excuse  negative     69
 7     5 amazing positive     57
 8     5 alarm   negative     56
 9     5 awesome positive     56
10     5 perfect positive     56
# ℹ 991 more rows

Most Common Positive and Negative Words (by Stars Rating)

We can focus on 1 star rating using filter()

bing_word_counts_by_stars |>
  filter(stars == 1) |>
  group_by(sentiment) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word = reorder(word, n)) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = n,
      y = word,
      fill = sentiment
      )
    ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~sentiment, scales = "free_y") +
  labs(
    x = "Contribution to sentiment for 1 star reviews",
    y = NULL
    )

Most Common Positive and Negative Words (by Stars Rating)

Most Common Positive and Negative Words (by Stars Rating)

Let’s see now the 5 star reviews

bing_word_counts_by_stars |>
  filter(stars == 5) |>
  group_by(sentiment) |>
  slice_max(n, n = 10) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(word = reorder(word, n)) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = n, 
      y = word,
      fill = sentiment)) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~sentiment, scales = "free_y") +
  labs(
    x = "Contribution to sentiment for 5 star reviews",
    y = NULL
    )

Most Common Positive and Negative Words (by Stars Rating)

Most Common Positive and Negative Words (by Stars Rating)

Let’s compare side by side

More Word Clouds!

Sometimes we want to visually present positive and negative words for the same text.

We can use the comparison.cloud() function from the wordcloud package.

First we need to install the package:

install.package(wordcloud)

After that, we load it as usual:

library(wordcloud)

More Word Clouds!

For comparison.cloud(), we may need to turn the data frame into a matrix with the acast() function from the reshape2 package.

The size of a word’s text is in proportion to its frequency within its sentiment.

We can see the most important positive and negative words, but the sizes of the words are not comparable across sentiments.

library(reshape2)

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  count(word, sentiment, sort = TRUE) |>
  acast(word ~ sentiment, value.var = "n", fill = 0) |>
  comparison.cloud(colors = c("red", "green"),
                   max.words = 100)

More Word Clouds!

More Word Clouds! (by Star Rating)

We can do the same as before, focusing on the different star ratings.

library(reshape2)

tidy_review |>
  inner_join(get_sentiments("bing")) |>
  filter(stars == 1) |>
  count(word, sentiment, sort = TRUE) |>
  acast(word ~ sentiment, value.var = "n", fill = 0) |>
  comparison.cloud(colors = c("gray20", "gray80"),
                   max.words = 100)

More Word Clouds! (by Star Rating)

More Word Clouds! (by Star Rating)

1 star review

5 star review

Part Three - Topic Modelling

Into the woods!

Topic Modelling

In this last part, we will build a model using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), to give a simple example of using LDA to generate collections of words that together suggest themes.

Clustering vs. Topic Modelling

  • Clustering

    • Clusters are uncovered based on distance, which is continuous
    • Every object is assigned to a single cluster

  • Topic Modelling

    • Topics are uncovered based on word frequency, which is discrete
    • Every document is a mixture (i.e., partial member) of every topic

Topic Modelling

  • Topic modelling is an unsupervised machine learning approach that can:

    • scan a collection of documents,
    • find word and phrase patterns within them, and
    • automatically group word groupings and related expressions into topics

Topic Modelling with LDA

  • Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is a machine learning algorithm which discovers different topics underlying a collection of documents, where each document is a collection of words.

  • LDA makes the following two assumptions:

    1 Every document is a combination of one or more topic(s) 2 Every topic is a mixture of words

Building Models with LDA

  • LDA seeks to find groups of related words.

  • It is an iterative, generative algorithm, with two main steps:

    1. During initialization, each word is assigned to a random topic.
    2. The algorithm goes through each word iteratively and reassigns the word to a topic with the following considerations:
    • the probability the word belongs to a topic and,
    • the probability the document can be generated by a topic

Creating the Document-Term Matrix

  • The LDA algorithm requires the data to be presented as a document-term matrix (DTM).

  • Each document is a row, and each column is a term.

Creating the Document-Term Matrix

We can achieve that by piping (|>) our tidy data to the cast_dtm() function from tidytext, where:

  • id is the name of the field with the document name, and
  • word is the name of field with the term.

This tells us how many documents and terms we have, and that this is a very sparse matrix.

The word sparse implies that the DTM contains mostly empty fields.

tidy_review |>
  count(word, id) |>
  cast_dtm(id, word, n)
<<DocumentTermMatrix (documents: 2330, terms: 3725)>>
Non-/sparse entries: 20224/8659026
Sparsity           : 100%
Maximal term length: NA
Weighting          : term frequency (tf)

Exploring the Document-Term Matrix

We can look into the contents of a few rows and columns of the DTM by piping it into the as.matrix() function.

You will see that each row is a review, and each column is a term.

dtm_review <- tidy_review |>
  count(word, id) |>
  cast_dtm(id, word, n) |>
  as.matrix()

Exploring the Document-Term Matrix

We can look into the contents of a few rows and columns of the DTM by piping it into the as.matrix() function.

You will see that each row is a review, and each column is a term.

dtm_review <- tidy_review |>
  count(word, id) |>
  cast_dtm(id, word, n) |>
  as.matrix()

dtm_review[1:4, 2000:2004]
     Terms
Docs  louis lov love loved lovee
  946     0   0    0     0     0
  90      0   0    0     0     0
  369     0   0    0     0     0
  864     0   0    0     0     0

Fitting the Model

We will use the LDA() function from the topicmodels package.

First we need to install the package:

install.packages("topicmodels")

And load the package as usual:

library(topicmodels)

Fitting the Model

  • For our purposes, we will just need to know three parameters for the LDA() function:

    • the number of topics k (let’s start with two, so k = 2),
    • the sampling method (method =), and
    • the seed (for repeatable results, so seed = 123).

Fitting the Model

  • The method parameter defines the sampling algorithm to use.

  • The default is method = "VEM".

  • We will use the method = "Gibbs" sampling method (it does perform better in my experience)

  • An explanation of VEM or Gibbs methods is beyond this workshop, but I encourage everyone to read a bit more about these two methods.

Fitting the Model

Let’s fit the LDA model and explore the output.

lda_tidy <- dtm_review |> 
  LDA(
    k = 2,
    method = "Gibbs",
    control = list(seed = 123)
    )

Fitting the Model

Let’s fit the LDA model and explore the output.

lda_tidy <- dtm_review |> 
  LDA(
    k = 2,
    method = "Gibbs",
    control = list(seed = 123)
    )

lda_tidy
A LDA_Gibbs topic model with 2 topics.

Exploring the LDA() output

If you REALLY want more details, we can use the glimpse() function:

glimpse(lda_tidy)
Formal class 'LDA_Gibbs' [package "topicmodels"] with 16 slots
  ..@ seedwords      : NULL
  ..@ z              : int [1:22139] 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 ...
  ..@ alpha          : num 25
  ..@ call           : language LDA(x = dtm_review, k = 2, method = "Gibbs", control = list(seed = 123))
  ..@ Dim            : int [1:2] 2330 3725
  ..@ control        :Formal class 'LDA_Gibbscontrol' [package "topicmodels"] with 14 slots
  ..@ k              : int 2
  ..@ terms          : chr [1:3725] "07" "1" "10" "10.00" ...
  ..@ documents      : chr [1:2330] "946" "90" "369" "864" ...
  ..@ beta           : num [1:2, 1:3725] -11.65 -9.25 -7.54 -11.64 -11.65 ...
  ..@ gamma          : num [1:2330, 1:2] 0.516 0.517 0.475 0.398 0.5 ...
  ..@ wordassignments:List of 5
  .. ..$ i   : int [1:20224] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
  .. ..$ j   : int [1:20224] 1 12 23 144 774 1669 1794 2119 2469 2630 ...
  .. ..$ v   : num [1:20224] 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 ...
  .. ..$ nrow: int 2330
  .. ..$ ncol: int 3725
  .. ..- attr(*, "class")= chr "simple_triplet_matrix"
  ..@ loglikelihood  : num -145622
  ..@ iter           : int 2000
  ..@ logLiks        : num(0) 
  ..@ n              : int 22139

Exploring the LDA() output

Most easily, we can use the tidy() function with the matrix = "beta" argument to put it into a format that is easy to understand.

Passing beta provides us with the per-topic-per-word probabilities from the model.

lda_tidy |>
  tidy(matrix = "beta") |>
  arrange(desc(beta))
# A tibble: 7,450 × 3
   topic term     beta
   <int> <chr>   <dbl>
 1     2 love   0.0651
 2     1 echo   0.0574
 3     2 alexa  0.0403
 4     2 music  0.0318
 5     2 easy   0.0235
 6     1 sound  0.0207
 7     2 set    0.0203
 8     1 amazon 0.0190
 9     1 dot    0.0184
10     2 device 0.0163
# ℹ 7,440 more rows

Interpreting Topics

To understand the model clearly, we need to see what terms are in each topic.

Starting with two topics:

lda_2_topics <- dtm_review |>
  LDA(
    k = 2,
    method = "Gibbs",
    control = list(seed = 123)
    ) |>
  tidy(matrix = "beta")

word_2_probs <- lda_2_topics |>
  group_by(topic) |>
  slice_max(beta, n = 15) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(term2 = fct_reorder(term, beta))

Interpreting Topics - Two Topics

word_2_probs |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = term2,
      y = beta,
      fill = as.factor(topic)
      )
  ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~topic, scales = "free") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "LDA Top Terms for 2 Topics"
  )

Interpreting Topics - Two Topics

Finding the Terms Generating the Greatest Differences

beta_wide <- lda_2_topics |>
  mutate(topic = paste0("topic", topic)) |>
  pivot_wider(names_from = topic, values_from = beta) |>
  filter(topic1 > .001 | topic2 > .001) |>
  mutate(log_ratio = log2(topic2 / topic1))

beta_wide |>
  arrange(desc(abs(log_ratio))) |>
  head(20) |>
  arrange(desc(log_ratio)) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = log_ratio,
      y = term
      )
    ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  labs(
    title = "Terms with the greatest difference in beta between two topics"
  )

Finding the Terms Generating the Greatest Differences

Interpreting Topics - Three Topics

lda_3_topics <- dtm_review |>
  LDA(
    k = 3,
    method = "Gibbs",
    control = list(seed = 123)
    ) |>
  tidy(matrix = "beta")

word_3_probs <- lda_3_topics |>
  group_by(topic) |>
  slice_max(beta, n = 15) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(term2 = fct_reorder(term, beta))

Interpreting Topics - Three Topics

word_3_probs |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = term2, 
      y = beta, 
      fill = as.factor(topic)
      )
  ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~topic, scales = "free") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "LDA Top Terms for 3 Topics"
  )

Interpreting Topics - Three Topics

Interpreting Topics - Four Topics

lda_4_topics <- LDA(
  dtm_review,
  k = 4,
  method = "Gibbs",
  control = list(seed = 123)
) |>
  tidy(matrix = "beta")

word_4_probs <- lda_4_topics |>
  group_by(topic) |>
  slice_max(beta, n = 15) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(term2 = fct_reorder(term, beta))

Interpreting Topics - Four Topics

word_4_probs |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = term2,
      y = beta,
      fill = as.factor(topic)
      )
    ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~ topic, scales = "free") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "LDA Top Terms for 4 Topics"
  )

Interpreting Topics - Four Topics

Interpreting Topics - Five Topics

lda_5_topics <- LDA(
  dtm_review,
  k = 5,
  method = "Gibbs",
  control = list(seed = 123)
) |>
  tidy(matrix = "beta")

word_5_probs <- lda_5_topics |>
  group_by(topic) |>
  slice_max(beta, n = 15) |>
  ungroup() |>
  mutate(term2 = fct_reorder(term, beta))

Interpreting Topics - Five Topics

word_5_probs |>
ggplot(
  aes(
    x = term2,
    y = beta,
    fill = as.factor(topic)
    )
  ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~ topic, scales = "free") +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "LDA Top Terms for 5 Topics"
  )

Interpreting Topics - Five Topics

The Art of Topic Selection

  • Unsupervised learning always requires human interpretation…
  • Including new topics which are different is always a good thing
  • When topics start repeating, we have selected too many!
  • Topics can be named based on the combination of high-probability words

The Art of Topic Selection

Don’t forget about the mixed-membership concept and that these topics are not meant to be completely disjoint.

You can fine tune the LDA algorithm using extra parameters to improve the model.

Document-Topic Probabilities

LDA models each document as a mix of topics and words.

With matrix = "gamma" we can investigate per-document-per-topic probabilities.

Document-Topic Probabilities

Each of these values represents an estimated percentage of the document’s words that are from each topic. Most of these reviews belong to more than one topic.

lda_tidy |>
  tidy(matrix = "gamma") |>
  arrange(desc(gamma))
# A tibble: 4,660 × 3
   document topic gamma
   <chr>    <int> <dbl>
 1 1666         1 0.728
 2 1466         1 0.716
 3 1496         1 0.688
 4 1646         1 0.683
 5 1688         1 0.677
 6 1601         1 0.671
 7 1658         1 0.670
 8 1624         1 0.655
 9 1464         1 0.651
10 1038         2 0.648
# ℹ 4,650 more rows

Colophon - Summary

Part One: Text Mining and Exploratory Analysis

  • We covered several topics:

    • Tidy and |>
    • Process of Text Mining
    • Data Exploration
    • Text Cleaning with textclean
    • Tokenizing Text with tidytext
    • Removal of stop words
    • Plotting Words (Counts and Clouds)

Part Two: Tidy Sentiment Analysis in R

  • We explored:

    • Sentiment Analysis Dictionaries
    • Counting and Visualizing Sentiments
    • Comparing Sentiments (Counts and Clouds)

Part Three: Topic Modelling

  • We discussed:

    • Clustering vs Topic Modelling
    • Topic Modelling with LDA
    • Create the Document-Term Matrix
    • Interpreting Topics
    • Finding the Terms Generating Differences
    • Document-Topic Probabilities
    • The Art of Topic Selection

Outro

Thank you! 🙌

Feel free to explore the Appendix!

References

Hu, Minqing, and Bing Liu. 2004. Mining and Summarizing Customer Reviews. KDD ’04. New York, NY, USA: ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/1014052.1014073.
Loughran, Tim, and Bill McDonald. 2011. “When Is a Liability Not a Liability? Textual Analysis, Dictionaries, and 10-Ks.” The Journal of Finance 66 (1): 35–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2010.01625.x.
Mohammad, Saif M., and Peter D. Turney. 2013. “Crowdsourcing a Word-Emotion Association Lexicon.” Computational Intelligence 29 (3): 436–65.
Nielsen, F. Å. 2011. “AFINN.” Richard Petersens Plads, Building 321, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby: Informatics; Mathematical Modelling, Technical University of Denmark. http://www2.compute.dtu.dk/pubdb/pubs/6010-full.html.
Rinker, Tyler W. 2021. sentimentr: Calculate Text Polarity Sentiment. Buffalo, New York. https://github.com/trinker/sentimentr.
Silge, & Robinson, J. 2017. Text Mining with r. O’Reilly Media.
Wickham, Cetinkaya-Rundel, H. 2023. R for Data Science (2e). O’Reilly Media.

Appendix

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

  • Another package for lexicon-based sentiment analysis is sentimentr (Rinker 2021).

  • Unlike the tidytext package, sentimentr takes valence shifters (e.g., negation) into account, which can easily flip the polarity of a sentence with one word.

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

  • For example, the sentence “I am not unhappy” is actually positive.
  • But if we analyze it word by word, the sentence may seem to have a negative sentiment due to the words “not” and “unhappy”.
  • Similarly, “I hardly like this book” is a negative sentence.
  • But the analysis of individual words, “hardly” and “like”, may yield a positive sentiment score.

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

In contrast to tidytext, for sentimentr we need the actual sentences than the individual tokens.

Therefore, we can use the original cleaned review_data, get individual sentences for each media briefing using the get_sentences() function, and then calculate sentiment scores per sentence via sentiment().

As usual, we need to install the package:

install.package(sentimentr)

And load it before usage:

library(sentimentr)

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

sentimentr_review <- review_data |>
  mutate(id = row_number()) |>
  get_sentences() |>
  sentiment()

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

sentimentr_review
      stars      date         product
   1:     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric
   2:     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric
   3:     4 31-Jul-18   Walnut Finish
   4:     4 31-Jul-18   Walnut Finish
   5:     5 31-Jul-18 Charcoal Fabric
  ---                                
5834:     5 30-Jul-18      White  Dot
5835:     4 29-Jul-18      Black  Dot
5836:     5 29-Jul-18      Black  Dot
5837:     5 31-Jul-18      Black  Dot
5838:     5 31-Jul-18      Black  Dot
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    review
   1:                                                                                                                                                                                                        Love my Echo!
   2:                                                                                                                                                                                                            Loved it!
   3:                                                                                     Sometimes while playing a game, you can answer a question correctly but Alexa says you got it wrong and answers the same as you.
   4:                                                                                                                                                    I like being able to turn lights on and off while away from home.
   5:                                                                                                                                                                             I have had a lot of fun with this thing.
  ---                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
5834: I have a couple friends that have a dot and do not mind the audio quality, but if you are bothered by that kind of thing I would go with the full size echo or make sure you hook the do up to some larger speakers.
5835:                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Good
5836:                                                                                                                                                                                           Nice little unit no issues
5837:                                                                                                                                                                             The echo dot was easy to set up and use.
5838:                                                                                                                                    It helps provide music, etc. to small spaces and was just what I was looking for.
      feedback   id element_id sentence_id word_count   sentiment
   1:        1    1          1           1          3  0.43301270
   2:        1    2          2           1          2  0.35355339
   3:        1    3          3           1         24 -0.34429620
   4:        1    3          3           2         14  0.13363062
   5:        1    4          4           1         10  0.23717082
  ---                                                            
5834:        1 2432       2432           3         46 -0.31331416
5835:        1 2433       2433           1          1  0.75000000
5836:        1 2434       2434           1          5  0.13416408
5837:        1 2435       2435           1         10 -0.06324555
5838:        1 2435       2435           2         16  0.55000000

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr - Plotting by Star Rating

sentimentr_review |>
  group_by(stars) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = stars,
      y = sentiment,
      fill = as.factor(stars)
      )
    ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Overall Sentiment by Stars using sentimentr",
    subtitle = "Reviews for Alexa",
    x = "Stars",
    y = "Overall Sentiment"
  )

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr - Plotting by Star Rating

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

We can also look at sentiment analysis by whole reviews, instead of per sentence.

sentimentr_sentence <- review_data |>
  get_sentences() |>
  sentiment_by() 

review_data_id <- review_data |>
    mutate(id = row_number()) 

sentimentr_merged <- sentimentr_sentence |>
  inner_join(review_data_id,
             join_by(element_id == id))

sentimentr_merged |>
  group_by(stars) |>
  ggplot(
    aes(
      x = stars, 
      y = ave_sentiment,
      fill = as.factor(stars)
      )
    ) +
  geom_col(show.legend = FALSE) +
  coord_flip() +
  labs(
    title = "Overall Sentiment by Stars using sentimentr",
    subtitle = "Reviews for Alexa",
    x = "Stars",
    y = "Overall Sentiment"
  )

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

Sentiment Analysis with sentimentr

For this specific case, we can see that the sentiment analysis results are very similar between:

sentimentr at a sentence level

bing lexicon on a word by word basis

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

Unfortunately, there is no tidy way to create a word cloud with the wordcloud package 😒

Regardless, it is time to ask the wordcloud() function to read and plot our data.

wordcloud(
  word = word_counts$word,
  freq = word_counts$n
)

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

There are some useful arguments to experiment with here:

  • min.freq and max.words set boundaries for how populated the wordcloud will be
  • random.order will put the largest word in the middle if set to FALSE
  • rot.per is the fraction of words that will be rotated in the graphic

Finally, the words are arranged randomly somehow, and so for a repeatable graphic we need to specify a seed value with set.seed().

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

set.seed(13)
wordcloud(
  word = word_counts$word,
  freq = word_counts$n,
  max.words = 30,
  min.freq = 4,
  random.order = FALSE,
  rot.per = 0.25
)

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

Changing the number of words in the cloud.

set.seed(13)
wordcloud(
  word = word_counts$word,
  freq = word_counts$n,
  max.words = 70,
  min.freq = 4,
  random.order = FALSE,
  rot.per = 0.25
)

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

Using pre-defined colours.

set.seed(13)
wordcloud(
  word = word_counts$word,
  freq = word_counts$n,
  max.words = 30,
  min.freq = 4,
  random.order = FALSE,
  rot.per = 0.25,
  colors = "blue"
)

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

Using funky colours, thanks to the RColorBrewer package and its large selection of colour palettes

set.seed(13)
wordcloud(
  word = word_counts$word,
  freq = word_counts$n,
  max.words = 30,
  min.freq = 4,
  random.order = FALSE,
  rot.per = 0.25,
  colors = brewer.pal(8, "Paired")
)

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds

If you need more customization (including non-latin characters), you can use the wordcloud2() function from the wordcloud2 package.

library(wordcloud2)
set.seed(13)
wordcloud2(word_counts_filter,
           size = 2, 
           minRotation = -pi/2, 
           maxRotation = -pi/2)

EuroSense 2024

(Alternative) Creating Word Clouds